The seas surrounding the Arabian Peninsula are an area of striking contrasts, in their geology and their biology, and their status in relation to man. They are bordered by some of the world's richest and poorest countries. The vast majority of the coral reefs are very little known, while others have been the focus of study for decades. They include some of the most northerly reef communities in the world, subject to harsh climatic extremes including high and low temperatures, but also to high levels of solar insolation. Despite this, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden may be most biologically diverse coral reef away from the Southeast Asian center of diversity. Biologically the area is relatively isolated as there are no true reefs along much of the coasts of Pakistan or eastern Somalia, which might be seen as the edges of the region.

Reefs are poorly developed along the southern and eastern shores of Arabia, due to the regular cold upwellings associated with the Somali Current. Along the areas of coastline most exposed to these upwellings, in southern Oman and eastern Yemen, macro algal rather than coral communities predominate, but in more sheltered areas such as the leeward sides of islands, extensive and high-cover coral communities are found.

The Persian Gulf is a vast shallow sea with little in common with the Red Sea, other than the fact that it too has been subject to periodic drying out over recent geological history. the natural environment is one of harsh climatic extremes, relating to both the high latitude and shallow waters. As a consequence reef development is somewhat restricted and biological diversity is very low.

Human pressures on the reefs in this region vary considerably. Fisheries are an important activity in some countries, and over fishing may not yet be as widespread a problem as in other regions, but occurs in some areas, including around Yemen and the Gulf of Aden where lobster and shark fisheries are having particular impacts. The region is the principal world petroleum producer and exporter, and a major global shipping route, with related risks of pollution, collisions, groundings, ballast and other discharges. Chronic oil pollution is higher in the Persian Gulf than in any other coral reef area. Massive development has occurred in parts of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea and in the Arabian Gulf, leading to direct impacts from land reclamation and sedimentation, and also more widespread degradation associated with urban and industrial pollution. Coastal and reef-based tourism has only really developed in the northern Red Sea, but here the rates of growth have been massive, with significant negative impacts in some areas and important examples of successful management in others.

The northern Red Sea includes the coastlines of Egypt, Israel and Jordan, and a substantial part of Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastline.

Egypt's extensive coastline incorporates a significant proportion and a considerable range of the coral reefs found in the Red Sea. including a small number of reefs and islands lying in deep water at some distance from the continental shelf. Human activities along this coastline are highly varied, and include areas of quite intensive use and considerable reef degradation, but also areas which remain relatively remote and inaccessible, and which are largely unimpacted by humans.

Marine fishing is not a major industry in Egypt and therefore is not a major threat to coral reefs. In contrast however, pollution from shipping and oil spillage are a significant threat, notably along the coastline of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba. Ship groundings have also been a problem, causing direct physical destruction to some reefs, and raising concerns about the potential economic repercussions arising from any damage to the major tourist beaches and dive sites.  The Suez Canal also provides an additional threat. The canal itself was first opened in 1869 and provides a direct sea-level connection between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Such a connection allows species to move between these two seas and to invade areas where they have not previously been recorded (although in fact conditions in the canal are very harsh and highly saline, making the transfer difficult).  Thus far there has been a quite considerable flow of species from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, but relatively few have made the reverse journey and their impacts on reefs are insignificant.

The greatest impact on the reefs has been the explosion of coastal tourism since the 1980's, with massive growth of resort towns in Sinai and along the mainland Red Sea coast.  The latter areas, especially around Hurghada and Safaga, have been particularly poorly planned, leaving to the degradation or loss of many of the nearshore fringing reefs. New developments are continuing, notably at Ras Abu Soma but also at localities further south. On the Aqaba coast of Sinai there has been a massive expansion of the tourist industry. Despite this boom however, relatively strict planning measures have been adopted and enforced in the south Sinai area and the direct impact on reefs has been low.

A very substantial proportion of Egypt's coral reefs are protected, including all those in the Gulf of Aqaba and all the fringing reefs around islands in the Red Sea itself. There are twenty-two islands covered by this legislation, including the important and remote offshore islands of the Brothers (El Akhawein), Daedalus (Abu El Kizan), Zabargad and Rocky. The reefs of the Sinai Peninsula have undergone active management since the early 1990s. Mooring buoys have been installed and restrictions are enforced at the sites. A user fee helps support these activities. The significant value of reefs in the national economy has led to the recognition and establishment of a fine system for damage to reef substrate (from ship groundings and other activities).

Israel has only about twelve kilometers of Red Sea coastline, which is now entirely taken up with urban and industrial development. Nearshore there is a small area of reef, however the stresses in these waters are considerable, including poorly treated water sewage discharge, mariculture effluents, bilge and ballast water discharges, and other chemical discharges (including phosphates, detergents, pesticides and  hydrocarbons). Although protected the reef is further subject to some of the highest diver densities in the world, with an estimated 200,000 dives per year in the late 1990's, largely taking place in the nature preserve. Declines in the reef are notable and coral recruitment was also reported to be declining. Direct damage by divers is high, although it has been reduced following the introduction of diver education programs.

Jordan has a short coastline, with considerable urban and industrial development in the north bust relatively little further south, although it is likely to expand to those areas in the future. Diving tourism is a significant part of the economy and most of the reefs are protected. Enforcement has been a problem, although a number of staff have now been trained in the Ras Mohammed National Park in Egypt. Pollution from the fertilizer industry and sewage are problems in the north of the country.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Northern Red Sea Dive Sites
Reef Base: Jordan 

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest coral reef nation in the region, with an extensive coastline facing the Red Sea, and an additional significant coastline along the western shores of the Persian Gulf. In terms of biodiversity, the Red Sea coastline incorporates the full wealth of Red Sea species, including those endemic to northern regions, but also the communities and species which are more abundant further south. Surveys reveal some two hundred and sixty species of hard coral. Fringing reefs form a near continuous strip along much of the northern coastline. Further south there is a complex series of fringing, patch and barrier reefs and small islands near the Saudi Arabian coastline on the Al Wadj Bank. This area also houses important and extensive seagrass and mangrove communities. South of this, a discontinuous barrier-type structure has been described running from Al Wadj to Jeddah and termed the Little Barrier Reef. In the far south of the country physical conditions inhibit the development of extensive reef areas close to the continental coastline. However, in a direct parallel with conditions on the coastline of Eritrea, there is extensive mangrove and seagrass development along this coastline, while offshore there is important reef development around the Farasan Islands.

Large parts of Saudi Arabia's coastline are undeveloped, particularly away from the central towns of Jeddah and Yanbu. Sewage pollution and land reclamation are concerns around many of the larger towns, including Al Wadj, Yanbu, Jeddah and Jizan. Close to these there are an estimated eighteen desalination plants along the Red Sea coast, creating localized problems through the return of warm, highly saline waters together with chemicals such as chlorine and anti-scaling compounds.  Oil pollution is a threat to reefs around some of the major ports and the refinery in Yanbu. Jeddah is the largest of the Red Sea ports and has undergone massive expansion in recent decades, including large amounts of reclamation and building work directly on the fringing reef flats. Intensive industrial and urban development now extends over more than one hundred kilometers of this coastline, and many of the nearshore reefs (together with associated seagrass and mangrove areas) have been severely degraded or destroyed, with pollution and sedimentation combining with the direct impacts of reclamation. Away from these urban areas costal development remains limited and the reefs are in relatively good condition.

Fishing is not a major industry in the country. There is however, significant fishing for food and recreation on the nearshore reefs close to the towns, threatening local populations of target species such as large groupers. Tourism is largely unknown, and there is no active promotion of diving or snorkelling, although a number of dive centers cater for local needs, which include significant number of expatriate workers. A large number of marine protected areas have been proposed along this coastline, though few have been declared.

On the Persian Gulf Coast, Saudi Arabia has some of the most extensive and diverse coral reefs in the Gulf. there are fringing reefs around a number of the offshore islands, with coral growth extending to depths of around eighteen meters. Closer to the mainland there are smaller patches and pinnacles. Up to fifty species of coral and over two hundred species of fish have been recorded, with the greatest diversity found in the offshore areas.

Extensive sections of this coastline are developed and there are large numbers of offshore oil platforms. Impacts on the reefs include those arising from oil pollution, solid waste and industrial and sewage effluents. There have also been more direct impacts from land reclamation. A large area of reefs have legal protection in one of the only marine protected areas in the Arabian Gulf, although it is unclear to what degree this site is actively managed.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Saudi Arabia

The central Red Sea can be defined politically as the coastlines of Sudan in the west and the central areas of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea Coast in the east. The shores are lined by fringing reefs, mostly with shallow reef flats a few tens of meters wide in the north, although becoming broader further south and stretching out from the coast in areas where there are wide alluvial fans.

In addition to fringing reefs, discontinuous barrier-type structures have been described on both Sudanese and Saudi Arabian coastlines. To the south, Suakin Archipelago consists of a number of offshore islands rising from relatively deep water. Most of these have significant fringing reefs.

Biologically, this region has many similiaries with the more northerly reefs, although it is not affected by such extreme winter cooling and salinities are more stable. These are among the most biologically diverse reefs in the entire Western Indian Ocean region and coral cover is highly varied. There is a growing recreational dive industry, almost run from boats operating out of Egypt and Port Sudan, and thus far the total number of visitors to these reefs are still low.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Sudan

The physical structure of the Red Sea changes significantly in its southern sections. Nearshore fringing reefs are less common on the mainland coasts, although some are found around offshore islands. Two archipelagos are located here: the Farasan Islands off the Saudi Arabian coast which extend into the Karmaran Islands off Yemen, and the Dahlak Archipelago off the coast of Eritrea.

Biologically, the southern Red Sea is very distinct. Mangroves are well developed along significant stretches of the coastline, as are seagrasses in shallow offshore waters. In contrast, many of the fringing reefs are poorly developed, and even around the offshore islands partial coral cover or fragmentary reef development is common.

Eritrea's coral reefs are extensive and suffered little human impact before the 1990's. Since then there have been small increases in both the coastal population and fisheries. Additionally there is a commercial fishery for the aquarium trade, and around 100,000 fish were exported between 1995 and 1997. The most important and diverse reefs, around the offshore islands including the Dahlak Archipelago, remain in relatively good condition despite the lack of legal protection. By contrast some of the coastal reefs have suffered from development and land reclamation, notably around Massawa.. Considerable efforts have been underway since 1999 to develop a comprehensive management regime for the country's coastal resources, included the designation of protected areas.

Yeman has a long coastline, with a short section facing the Red sea and a much longer one facing the Gulf of Aden. In the Red Sea, Yeman has a more densely populated coastline than many other areas and has a number of interesting and important coral communities and some true reefs, including around Al Mukalla, Bir Ali and Shugra. Some of these communities include wide areas of mono specific coral stands, notably of Pocillopora and Montipora. Human impacts on the reefs in Yemen are still relatively minimal, other than from fishingThere are oil terminals in Hudaydah and Mukha, and oil pollution together with sewage and industrial development may be having localized impacts. A significant sharkfin fishery has been reported in the southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, with many fishermen coming from Yemen and operating illegally in the waters of neighboring countries. Apart from driving a rapid decline in sharks there is reported to also be a considerable by-catch, including turtles and dolphins.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Yeman

South of the Bab el Mandeb, the mouth of the Red Sea, the waters rapidly open out into the Gulf of Aden, a wide semi-enclosed sea bordered by Djibouti in the west, Yemen in the north and Somalia and the Yemini islands of Socotra, Abd al Kiri, Drasa and Semha in the south. From an ecological and biogeographic perspective this is a particularly interesting region. The cool nutrient rich upwellings that occur in the east have enabled the development of unusual communities dominated by macroalgae. Small numbers of coral are also sometimes found alongside these algae, while in more sheltered areas, such as the landward sides of some Omani islands, very extensive high cover coral communities are found. Until the mid 1990's the Gulf of Aden was almost entirely unknown, but recent studies have revealed extensive and diverse coral communities supporting some of the most diverse fish populations of the entire Arabian region.

Further interest in this region comes from the biogeographic affinities of the coral communities themselves. The Gulf of Aden and adjacent waters were not subject to drying out or hypersalinization as other nearby regions were during the Pleistocene, and it is hypothesized that this area was a critical refuge for some Red Sea species..

Djibouti has some of the best developed reefs outside the Red Sea, including fringing reef communities along parts of the mainland coast, and fringing and platform structures around the reefs and islands of Maskali and Musha and the Sept Freres just south of the Bab el Mandeb. One hundred and sixty-seven coral species have been described here. The main economic activity of Djibouti is the operation of the main port, and coral reef areas around it are thought to be heavily degraded. A limited amount of tourism with a coastal focus and some diving on the offshore islands was also taking place in the late 1990's.

Northern Somalia reef development along the northern coast is sporadic, however there are reefs and coral communities in various locations, including wide monospecific stands of Acropora in a few areas. The best developed reefs are fringing structures  and patch or platform reefs in the area around Saad ed Din and other islands close to Djibouti. The northern coast of Somalia still has only a sparse human population and coastal resources are regarded as very healthy, although there is a minor nearshore fishery and an opportunistic sharkfin fishery.

Oman's southern coastline and sub-tidal waters are dominated by sand, although there are a few rocky outcrops. The best developed coral communities and small reef formations are found in four main areas; the Musandam Peninsula; some of the shores and bays of the coast around Muscat and Daymaniyat Islands; the eastern coast of Masirah Island and the adjacent mainland; and the sheltered rocky areas of the coast around the Al Halaniyat Islands and mainland of Dhofar. Coral growth is restricted by both the cool water upwelllings and by the availability of hard substrates.

Human impacts on Oman's reefs have been considerable. Over fishing is probably only a localized problem on the reef communities, but damage from anchors and fishing gear, together with fishing-related litter, presents much greater problems. One survey found that between twenty-five and one hundred percent of all the coral on Pocillopora damicornis reefs surveyed in 1996 was damaged by abandoned nets. There is also a significant abalone fishery operating from the southwest of the country, and pollution from terrestrial sources or from tanker traffic, is fortunately minimal.

Oman is one of the few countries in the wider region to have moved towards an integrated system of coastal zone management and has begun to designate a system of marine protected areas.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Oman


The Persian Gulf (also known as the Arabian Gulf) is a vast shallow marine basin which has formed on the northeastern and eastern edge of the Arabian tectonic plate. Unlike the Red Sea, it receives considerable input from rivers at its northern end from the Shatt al Arab waterway which is formed from the Tigris, Euphrates and Karun Rivers. In addition there are a number of rivers flowing from the Zagros Mountains in Iran. On average, the Gulf is only around thirty-five meters deep and at its deepest point in the southeast it only reaches one hundred meters. During the last glacial maxima the entire area dried up and all marine life was extinguished. Climatically this is an extremely harsh region. Most of the Gulf is sub-tropical, and the surrounding arid land masses drive extremes of temperatures, with air temperatures frequently reaching 50 degrees C in the summer, but falling to 0 degrees C in the winter.

The benthic surfaces of most of the Gulf are featureless soft sediments, dominated by mud in the north and east and carbonate sands in the south and west. There are several areas of rocky shore, both on the mainland and offshore islands. Fringing and patch reefs have developed in a number of places.

In human terms the most important natural resource in the region is oil, with almost two thirds of the world's proven oil reserves located in the Gulf and adjacent land areas. This has had an enormous influence over the environment in the region, including the construction of numerous oil platforms, but more importantly the release of massive quantities of oil into the marine environment. Prior to the Gulf War in 1991 the waters of the Persian Gulf already had the world's highest concentration of hydrocarbons. Much was the result of ballast water discharge from tankers (20,000 -35,000) tankers pass through the Straits of Hormuz annually). Further release comes from accidents on the oil platforms and deliberate releases as a result of war. The Nowruz blow-out, a direct result of the Iran-Iraq war, released an estimated 500,000 barrels of oil. Even so, this was greatly surpassed by the Gulf War in 1991, when total releases were of the order 6-11 million barrels. Somewhat surprising the ecological impacts of this pollution may not be as great on coral reefs as might be expected. For the most part there is no direct contact with corals, and hence the smothering of corals was somewhat limited. The longer term effects of oil on coral growth and reproduction may be a little more difficult to ascertain however, and may be combined with other environmental stresses.

Reef-based tourism is virtually non-existent in the region, although there is a small amount of recreational diving among local and expatriate residents, some of whom are actively involved in environmental protection and rehabilitation. Although there is a strong interest in the environment in a number of the Persian Gulf countries and a significant number of marine protected areas have been proposed, only a few have actually been declared , and only one of these includes coral reefs.

United Arab Emirates' nearshore waters of the eastern parts of the United Arab Emirates are shallow, with relatively low water circulation, and some of the highest salinities in the Gulf. Although there are seagrasses, these waters are unsuitable for coral growth. Further offshore there are patch and fringing reefs around many of the islands. Diversity is low in all areas and many coral communities are dominated by large monospecific stands.

Qatar has fringing reefs along the north and east coasts, with coral communities growing on the coastal shelf to the east, but no real reef structures. Further offshore there are a number of platform reefs. In the far southwest the Gulf of Salwah is highly saline and unsuitable for coral growth.

Bahrain has no true fringing reefs but to the north and east there are a number of quite extensive platform reef structures. Diversity and coral cover is quite low. Bahrain is an industrialized nation and its trawl fisheries undoubtedly has had a major impact on offshore ecosystems, and probably impacted a number of coral reefs, until the industry was closed in 1998. Industrial effluents are significant , and nearshore waters are routinely dredged, with a major impact of increased sediments on the surrounding reefs.

Kuwait's reefs are largely located in the southern part of the country, and are dominated by platform and patch reefs along the coast of Kuwait City to the border with Saudi Arabia, and with some fringing reefs around offshore islands. There are considerable impacts on these reefs from the various human activities . Perhaps the most direct are problems of over fishing, solid waste disposal and wide spread anchor damage.

Iran has fringing reefs that are known to occur along parts of the mainland and particularly around some of the offshore islands, including Kharg and Kharko Islands in the north and several other small islands to the south. As Iran has the deepest and least saline waters of the Gulf, it seems likely that further research  may reveal new reef areas and considerable biodiversity.

Fishing is an important industry, and Iran has an ornamental fish trade, notably operating from the free trade areas of Kish and Qeshm Islands. Other human impacts, considerable in major industrial areas in the northeast and around Kish and Qeshm, include sedimentation and pollution, together with solid waste and anchor damage. The narrow waters around the Straits of Hormuz are among the busiest tanker lanes in the world, representing an ongoing threat to the southernmost reefs.

OFFICIAL, SCIENTIFIC & GOVERNMENTAL SITES:
Reef Base: Bahrain
Reef Base: Iran
Reef Base: Kuwait
Reef Base: Qatar
Reef Base: United Arab Emirates
 

Extracted and adapted from The World Atlas of Coral Reefs, by Mark D. Spalding, Corinna Ravilious and Edmund P. Green, published by the University of California Press . For more complete and in-depth coverage of the topics presented in this webpage, I recommend highly purchasing a copy of this beautifully illustrated book. Just click on the University of California Press link above to do so.